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Cognitive psychology of human memory (thesaurus)

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Concept information

phenomenon > memory phenomenon > memory narrowing effect > weapon focus effect

Preferred term

weapon focus effect  

Definition(s)

  • "a phenomenon whereby the presence of an unexpected weapon (e.g., a gun or knife) impairs memory for the perpetrator as well as other details of a criminal event, excluding the weapon itself." (Fawcett et al., 2016, p. 257-258).

Broader concept(s)

Related concept(s)

Synonym(s)

  • weapon focusing

Belongs to group

Bibliographic citation(s)

  • • Carlson, C. A., & Carlson, M. A. (2014). An evaluation of lineup presentation, weapon presence, and a distinctive feature using ROC analysis. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 3(2), 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2014.03.004

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: closed]
  • • Carlson, C. A., Dias, J. L., Weatherford, D. R., & Carlson, M. A. (2017). An investigation of the weapon focus effect and the confidence-accuracy relationship for eyewitness identification. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(1), 82–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.04.001

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: closed]
  • • Carlson, C., & Carlson, M. (2012). A distinctiveness-driven reversal of the weapon-focus effect. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 8(1), 36–53.

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: closed]
  • • Carlson, C., Pleasant, W., Weatherford, D., Carlson, M., & Whittington, J. (2016). The weapon focus effect: Testing an extension of the unusualness hypothesis. Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice, 2016, 87–100.

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: closed]
  • • Davies, G. M., Smith, S., & Blincoe, C. (2008). A “weapon focus” effect in children. Psychology Crime & Law, 14(1), 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160701340593

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: closed]
  • • Fawcett, J. M., Peace, K. A., & Greve, A. (2016). Looking down the barrel of a gun: What do we know about the weapon focus effect? Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5(3), 257-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.07.005

    [Study type: literature review / Access: open]
  • • Fawcett, J. M., Russell, E. J., Peace, K. A., & Christie, J. (2013). Of guns and geese: a meta-analytic review of the “weapon focus” literature. Psychology, Crime & Law, 19(1), 35–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2011.599325

    [Study type: meta-analysis / Access: closed]
  • • Kocab, K., & Sporer, S. (2016). The weapon focus effect for person identifications and descriptions: A meta-analysis. In M. K. Miller & B. H. Bornstein (Eds.), Advances in psychology and law (pp. 71–117). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29406-3_3

    [Study type: meta-analysis / Access: closed]
  • • Körner, H. M., Faul, F., & Nuthmann, A. (2023). Revisiting the role of attention in the “weapon focus effect”: Do weapons draw gaze away from the perpetrator under naturalistic viewing conditions? Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-022-02643-8

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: open]
  • • Kramer, T. H., Buckhout, R., & Eugenio, P. (1990). Weapon focus, arousal, and eyewitness memory: Attention must be paid. Law and Human Behavior, 14(2), 167–184. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01062971

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: closed]
  • • Loftus, E. F., Loftus, G. R., & Messo, J. (1987). Some facts about “weapon focus.” Law and Human Behavior, 11(1), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01044839

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: closed]
  • • Mansour, J. K., Hamilton, C. M., & Gibson, M. T. (2019). Understanding the weapon focus effect: The role of threat, unusualness, exposure duration, and scene complexity. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33(6), 991–1007. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3515

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: closed]
  • • Pickel, K. L., Narter, D. B., Jameson, M. M., & Lenhardt, T. T. (2008). The weapon focus effect in child eyewitnesses. Psychology, Crime, and Law, 14(1), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160701391307

    [Study type: empirical study / Access: closed]
  • • Steblay, N. M. (1992). A meta-analytic review of the weapon focus effect. Law and Human Behavior, 16(4), 413–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02352267

    [Study type: meta-analysis / Access: closed]

Creator

  • Frank Arnould

Moderator variable(s)

  • • Expectations: the weapon focus effect is larger when the presence of a weapon is unexpected (Fawcett et al., 2016).
  • • Physical appearance: the weapon focus effect on suspect identification is reversed when the perpetrator presents a distinctive sign (Carlson & Carlson, 2012; 2014).
  • • Retention interval: the magnitude of the weapon focus effect decreases as the time between the crime scene being experienced and the memory test increases (Fawcell et al., 2013).
  • • Type of eyewitness testimony: Meta-analyses suggest a moderate weapon focus effect on recalling and describing from memory specific details of a crime, such as the perpetrator's physical appearance. However, this effect is weak or even nonexistent on suspect identification in a police lineup (Kocab and Sporer (2016), Fawcett et al. (2013), and Steblay (1992).
  • • Weapon exposure time: the weapon focus effect is weaker when the weapon exposure time is short (≤ 10 seconds) or long (> 60 seconds), compared to an intermediate exposure time (between 10 and 60 seconds) (Fawcett et al., 2013).
  • • Weapon type: the weapon focus effect is larger for descriptions from memory of the perpetrator's physical appearance when the perpetrator was holding a knife or meat cleaver compared to a gun (Kobac & Sporer, 2016).

Dataset citation(s)

  • • Körner, H. M., & Nuthmann, A. (2023, February 2). Revisiting the Role of Attention in the “Weapon Focus Effect”: Do Weapons Draw Gaze Away From the Perpetrator Under Naturalistic Viewing Conditions? https://osf.io/8w9px

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URI

http://data.loterre.fr/ark:/67375/P66-QNQMWRXD-M

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